How to differentiate stainless steel grades SS202 & SS304?/How to know whether the used stainless steel grade is 202 or 304?

 As the name indicates, stainless steel is priced for its anti-rust & anti-corrosive properties. These properties are achieved by the right composition of elements such as chromium, molybdenum, nickel, & copper.

The market price of 304-grade is higher than the 202-grade stainless steel. So, there is a chance of replacing SS304 with SS202 by the contractor to earn more profit.

Therefore, it becomes necessary to know the grade of stainless steel utilized in your railing works.

Following are the different methods we can adopt to differentiate the stainless steel grades 202 & 304 from one another.

 1. Printed mark & logo:

When you purchase branded SS materials from the market, you will find the grade of steel embossed over the material. The name of the company or logo is also printed along with the SS grade.

Before utilizing the SS materials, you better check the steel grade of the individual pieces. 

The problem arises when you go for locally manufactured products, that do not contain grade markings for your confirmation. 

Following are the 3 other methods, that you can follow to find the grades of non-branded SS materials.

2. Steel grade tester:

The Stainless steel can be identified by using a steel-grade tester reagent as shown in the image.

The bottle contains about 15ml. of liquid reagents to test the SS grades. 

These bottles are priced at INR 30/- to INR 50/- per no.

When we drop these liquids over the stainless steel materials, they change their color as shown below.

By comparing the reaction colors with the color chart mentioned over the bottles, we can easily differentiate 304 & 202-grade stainless steel from one another. 

3. Spark test:

We can distinguish 304 & 202 grades when we cut them with metal cutting wheels or when we grind them with grinder wheels.

 304 grade:👉 The sparks produced are reddish-orange in color. The sparks fly a shorter distance. This is due to higher nickel content.

202 grade:👉  The sparks produced are yellowish in color. The sparks fly slightly longer distances when compared to the 304-type steel.

4. XRF gun:

 X-ray fluorescence guns are used to know the exact percentage of elements present in the alloys. We can analyze the compositions of different metals in all types of alloys. This method is used for larger projects where we need detailed analyzed reports.

As we already knew the composition of different types of stainless steel, we can find the SS grades by using the XRF gun.

To go through the field & laboratory tests conducted in civil engineering,  click here.

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What are PVC skirting groove beads? - Advantages of using skirting groove beads.

Let us go through some of the FAQs related to PVC skirting groove beads.

 1. What is a PVC skirting groove bead?

PVC groove beads are F-shaped materials, installed along with the wall skirting to create grooves. At the junctions of the wall & skirting, these beads are placed before POP/gypsum or wall surface finishings.

They provide a uniform groove above the skirting. By using the PVC groove beads, we can improve the quality of the skirting work. By installing these groove beads, we can create a rich appearance for the room & building.

2. What are the advantages of using skirting groove beads?

1. PVC groove beads create a uniform groove depth above the skirtings.

2. Improves the strength of the groove & prevents cracks at the junction. 

3. The height of the groove will be uniform without any flaws.

4.  Improves the edge strength.

5. Can be painted along with the finished wall surface.

6. Easy to install & saves labor work required in cutting the grooves.

7. Improves the finishes at the wall & skirting junctions. 

3. What are the available dimensions of PVC skirting groove beads?

The standard length of the PVC groove beads 👉 2.2m. (7' 2")

                                                  Groove size     👉 5mm, 6mm, 10mm, and 12mm.

                                                     Width           👉  10mm., 19mm.

                                                     Height          👉  9mm, 10mm.

4. What is the cost of PVC skirting beads?

The cost of the PVC skirting bead depends upon the quality & size of the material.

The cost of the skirting beads ranges from INR 40/- to INR 80/- per meter.

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What is drone surveying?/What are the benefits of drone surveying?

 Let us go through some of the FAQs related to drone surveying.

1. What is a drone land survey?

A drone survey is an aerial survey to capture the aerial data of a survey land from different angles. Drones are fitted with multispectral cameras & sensors. 

The drone survey provides us with numerous digital prints of the site. Each image is linked with the coordinates so that we can process & create detailed 2D & 3D maps.

2. Is the drone land survey accurate?

Yes. The drone flies at a lower altitude to capture high-resolution data. Several images are taken from different angles & they are overlaid to form the final data. So, there is no scope for errors in the survey maps formed by the drone survey. 

In a traditional survey, we come across human & instrumental errors. But as drones are unmanned data collectors, we find them more accurate & much faster.

3. What are the benefits of drone surveys?

1. Reduces working time: 

A traditional survey takes several days or even weeks to complete the work. The same task can be completed within a few hours in drone surveying.

2. Less manpower:

A drone survey does not need surveyors or more people to do the job. The data can be collected much more quickly & efficiently, that in turn saves the operative manpower.

3. Cost-effective: 

Drones can be used as & when required to capture data. Drone survey saves us extra time, and required manpower, & hence they are cost-effective.

4. Provides accurate data:

The drones can produce thousands of measurements captured from all angles. So there is less scope for errors when compared to manual mistakes or errors in traditional surveying. 

5. Accessibility:

The drone can fly into all the nooks & corners of our earth to collect data. In hilly areas & terrains, where manual reach out is impossible, drones are the best options for the survey work.

6. Tracking progress:

By using drones, we can capture snapshots of the land at various stages of ongoing work. They can be flown at required intervals to keep an eye on the day-to-day progress of the project work.

7. Safe to work:

 In traditional surveying, the workers are put at risk while accessing difficult areas. There are no such safety issues while we carry the drone surveying. Hence they are safe to work in all such unreachable topographical regions.

8. No dispute:

A drone survey provides visualized data so that non-surveyor can understand the work progress. Due to this visual source of information, there is no chance of disputes between the two parties.

4. How much does a drone survey cost?

The cost of a drone survey depends upon the type of survey & time involved in completing the job.

However, the general cost of the drone survey 👇

Per acre cost 👉  INR 2000/- to INR 10,000/- 

Per hour cost 👉  INR 1500/- to INR 5000/-

5. How does a drone survey work?

The drone survey uses geo-references & ground control points to create a data set. The aerial mapping incorporates ground control points in its high-accuracy images. This process of compiling data in the survey work is known as photogrammetry. 

The GNSS & GPS system is used for references to check the ground control points.

Drones are equipped with laser or lidar distance sensors, multispectral sensors, navigational systems such as GPS, altimeters, thermal sensors, etc.

 Once the images are captured from different angles, the compiled data are processed by software to create 2D or 3D survey maps.

To understand A to Z of surveying, click here.

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What are WPC louver panels?

 1. What are WPC louver panels?

WPC stands for wood polymer composites. These panels are used in the interior as well as the exterior of the building. The exterior panels are costlier as they are manufactured with UV-protected & non-fadable color pigments. 

WPC louver panels are used in the wall cladding, ceilings, and in the full or partial covering of interior pillars or columns.

2. What are the specifications or dimensions of WPC louver panels?

The standard dimension of WPC timber tubes are

 The length  👉 2850mm, 2900mm., & 2950mm.

          Width 👉  160mm. & 195mm.

          Depth or thickness 👉  Interior:14mm., 17mm.

                                               Exterior: 23mm., 25mm, & 27mm.

3. What is the market price of WPC louver panels?

The cost depends upon the texture, material quality, & dimension of the products. 

Exterior panels are costlier than interior WPC panels.

The market price starts from INR 850/- per no. & goes up to INR 1800/- per no.

WPC timber tubes of  std. quality & dimensions are available at INR 1200/- piece.

The installation cost of WPC louver panels

Interior  👉  INR 150/- to INR 200/- per no. of louver panel.

Exterior 👉   INR 200/- to INR 250/- per no. of louver panel.

4. What are the pros & cons of WPC louver panels?

Pros:

1. Termite proof & waterproof.

2. Easy to nail or screw.

3. No painting or finishing is required.

4. Can be cut to any required design.

5. Does not rot or decay.

6. Provides a royal & architectural look to the structure.

7. Does not contain toxic chemicals.

8. Fire retardant.

9. They provide a consistent quality when compared to wood.

10. Low maintenance & washable.

Cons:

1. Do not carry natural wood texture.

2. Unable to withstand extreme temperatures.

3. Comparatively costlier. 

4. Lower melting point.

To go through all types of building materials used in construction, click here.

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Weight calculator for MS angles./MS angle section weight calculator.

 To know the calculation procedure,  Go through the article 👇

👀.   How to calculate the weight of an MS angle?

Note: 

This calculation tool has been created with the greatest possible care. However, we cannot be held liable for its correctness.

For more such calculators, click 👇

Instant calculators.

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Calculator for usable volume of a wooden log./Calculator for Hoppus cu ft. volume of a wooden log.

 To know the calculation procedure,  Go through the article 👇

👀.  How to calculate the usable volume of a wooden log?

Note: 

This calculation tool has been created with the greatest possible care. However, we cannot be held liable for its correctness.

For more such calculators, click 👇

Instant calculators.

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What is the ACP sheet?/ Pros & cons of ACP sheets.

 1. What is the ACP sheet?

ACP stands for aluminum composite panels. They have a core material sandwiched between the two thin aluminum sheets.

ACP sheets are available in a variety of textures & wide range of colors.

2. What are the advantages & disadvantages of the ACP sheet?

Advantages:

1. Weatherproof.

2. Easy to install.

3. It has a good strength-to-weight ratio.

4. Anti-corrosive & stain resistant.

5. UV resistant & hence no color fading.

6. Budget-friendly.

7. Available in a variety of colors & finishes.

8. Fireproof  & soundproof.

9. Highly durable. 

10. They are good heat insulators.

11. They can be bent or folded as per the design requirement.

12. Environment-friendly & are fully recyclable.

13. Anti-termite & anti-fungal.

14. Low maintenance & easy to clean.

Disadvantages:

1. Susceptible to dents if hit by any hard objects or stones.

2. Chances of water penetration through the joints if the sealing is improper.

 3. Where we can use ACP sheets?

ACP sheets are used for

1. Wall panelings.

2. The exterior architectural claddings.

3. Signboards & name boards.

4. Cupboards, cabinets, wardrobes, & modular kitchens.

5. The equipment & machinery coverings.

6. To build the partitions for the offices & home interior.

7. False ceilings.

8. Canopy, overhang, & soffits.

To go through the articles on building materials used in construction, click here.

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What is a lightning arrester for a building?/ What is lightning protection system for a building?/ FAQ over lightning arrester.

 

Let us go through some of the FAQs related to lightning arresters.

1. What is a lightning arrester?

A lightning arrester is a device used to protect buildings, power lines, electrical equipment, & structures from the voltage surges caused by lightning strikes.

They are installed at the top of the structures to create a passage for the surge voltage from lightning, to flow into the earth.

2. Why do we need a lightning arrester?

When lightning strikes the structures, it passes into the ground by following the lowest resistance path. It might be the walls, power cables, or electronic devices.

A lighting arrester creates a bypass for the safe transfer of the voltage to the ground. 

In other words, lighting arresters protect the structures & equipment from the damage caused by the lightning strike. 

In high-rise buildings, it is a must to install the arresters, as there is a high probability of lightning strikes or damages caused by the surge voltage.  

3. What is the cost of a lightning arrester for a home?

The cost of the conventional lightning arrester depends upon the coverage radius, type of alloy or metal, no. of spikes, & size of the device.

Considering all these factors, the price of the arrester ranges from INR 1200/- to INR 6500/- per no. 

4. Where should we place a lightning arrester?

The lightning arrester rod should be placed at the highest elevation of the structure. It should be at least 2 meters above the building top to fully conduct the voltage surge through its cable connector.

 The grounding cable is connected to the base plate of the arrestor rod & the other end is connected to the grounding terminal.

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How to calculate the total load over the RCC footings?/ Calculating the superimposed & dead load over the RCC footing.

 Let us calculate the total load over the RCC footing RF1 as shown below.

Calculation:

1. The dead load of the brick wall over PB2

 = [unit weight × (volume of the wall)]

= [unit weight × (length × depth × thickness )]

Here,

Length = [Total span of the slab - (2nos.× column length)]

           = [3000mm. -  (2nos.× 450mm.)]

           = 2100mm. = 2.1m.

Depth = 2700mm. = 2.7m.

Thickness = 230mm. = 0.23m.

The dead load of the brick wall over PB2

= [ 1920 kg/cum. × (2.1m × 2.7m. × 0.23m.) ]

= 2503.87kg.

Also, read  👉👀 How to calculate the dead load of the brick wall?

2. The dead load of the brick wall over PB1

Here,

Length = [Total span of the slab - (2nos.× column length)]

           = [4500mm. -  (2nos.× 450mm.)]

           = 3600mm. = 3.6m.

Depth = 2700mm. = 2.7m.

Thickness = 230mm. = 0.23m.

The dead load of the brick wall over PB1

 = [unit weight × (volume of the wall)]

= [ 1920 kg/cum. × (3.6m. × 2.7m. × 0.23m.) ]

= 4292.35 kg.

3. The total load over the plinth beam PB1

= [self wt. of PB1 + a dead load of the wall over PB1]

 = [ 1164.38kg. + 4292.35kg]

= 5456.73 kg.

Note: The self-wt. of the plinth beam is taken from the article 👇

👀 How to calculate the self-weight of RCC footings & plinth beams?

3. The total load over the plinth beam PB2

= [self wt. of PB2 + a dead load of the wall over PB2]

 = [ 776.25kg. + 2503.87kg]

= 3280.12 kg.

4. Self wt. of stub column

 = [unit weight × (volume of the stub column)]

Here,

Depth of stub column = 1000mm. = 1m.

Sectional dimension of stub column = 230mm. × 450mm.

                                                           = 0.23m. × 0.45m.

Self wt. of stub column

= [ 2500kg/m³  × ( 0.23m. × 0.45m.  × 1.0m.)]

= 258.75 kg.

Now,

Total load over the RCC footing RF1

= [{Load transferred from column C1} + {1/2 × ( Load from PB1 + load from PB2)} + DL of stub column + Self wt. of footing]

= [ {68.706 × 101.97 } + {1/2 × ( 5456.73 + 3280.12)} + 258.75 + 476]

= [ 7005.95 + 4368.43 + 258.75 + 476 ]

= 12109.13 kg

= 118.75 KN.

( As 101.97kg = 1KN)

Note: The total load from the column C1 is taken from the article 👇

👀  How to calculate the total load over the columns?

The self-wt. of the footing is calculated in a separate article  👇

 👀  How to calculate the self-weight of RCC footings & plinth beams?

Factored load over the RCC footing RF1

= [118.75 × 1.5]

= 178.12 KN

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How to calculate the self weight of RCC footings & plinth beams?/Dead load of RCC footings & plinth beams.

 Let us now calculate the self-weight or dead load of the RCC footing as shown in the drawing.

Given data:

Length at the base = L = 750mm.

Breadth at the base = B = 600mm.

Total height H = 500 mm.

Top surface length = l = 450mm.

Top surface width = b = 300mm.

Calculation:

The self-weight of any RCC structure is calculated by the formula

  = [Unit weight × volume.]

As you know, the unit weight of the RCC structure = D =2500kg/cum.

The volume of the RCC footing is calculated in a separate article as linked below.

👀. How to calculate the volume of concrete in trapezoidal footing?

The self-weight of RCC footing

= [ 2500 kg/m³ × 0.1904m³]

= 476kg.

 Let us now calculate the self-weight or dead load of the plinth beam as shown in the drawing.

Given data:

The span of the plinth beam-1 (PB1) = 4500mm.=4.5m.

The span of plinth beam-2 (PB2) = 3000mm.=3.0m.

Sectional dimension of plinth beams = 230mm. × 450mm.

                                                           = 0.23m. × 0.45m.

Calculation:

The self-weight of the PB2

  = [Unit weight × (volume)]

 = [ 2500 kg/m³ × (3m × 0.23m. × 0.45m.)]

= 776.25kg.

 The self-weight of the PB1

  = [Unit weight × (volume)]

 = [ 2500 kg/m³ × (4.5m × 0.23m. × 0.45m.)]

= 1164.38kg.

To go through the articles on Estimation & calculation in civil engineering, click here.

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What is a void ratio of soil? - Significance & formula of void ratio.

 1. What is a void ratio?

The void ratio of soil is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.

Let us observe the 3-phase diagram of the soil as below.

We can write the void ratio as

e = [Vv / Vs]

From the above diagram, we can also say

e = [ Vv / (V - Vv)]

Where,

V = total volume.

Vv = volume of voids.

Vs = volume of solid.

Va = volume of air.

Vw = volume of water.

2. What is the unit & symbol of void ratio?

The void ratio is represented by the symbol  👉 e.

As it is the ratio of the two different volumes, it does not have any unit.

3. What is the importance of the void ratio in soil?

The soil is a mixture of different size particles. These distributed particles are varied in their characteristics & properties.

So, the void ratio becomes an important factor to determine the soil properties like permeability, shear strength, density, compressibility, porosity, etc. All these properties are closely related to the void ratio of that particular soil.

Therefore, the void ratio is considered more significant than the porosity.

4. Can the void ratio be zero in soil?

No. The volume of voids cannot be zero in the case of soil. 

So, in all circumstances, void ratio (e ) > 0.

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How to calculate floor area ratio ( FAR ) for a building?

 What is the floor area ratio?

The floor area ratio is the ratio of a building's total floor area to the area of land or plot upon which the building is constructed.

FAR is fixed by the local governing authority & it varies depending upon the region & locality.

FAR = [Total covered area of all floors/area of land or plot. ]

Let us go through the examples to understand the FAR concept clearly.

Examples:

1. Calculate the FAR of a building having 3 floors built over 1200 sq ft. area. The area of each floor is 650 sq ft.

FAR = [total floor area ➗ area of plot]

Here, the total floor area

= [area of each floor х no. of floors]

= [650 sq ft. х 3 nos.]

= 1950 sq ft.

FAR = [ 1950 sq ft. ➗ 1200 sq ft.]

  FAR  = 1.625 

Note:

In some parts of the country, FAR is also denoted in percentages.

 FAR 150% or simply 150 is equivalent to FAR = 1.5. In this city, you can construct a building having a covered area of 1.5 times your plot. 

2. Calculate the total floor area of the building which you can construct over the plot of size 50ft.х 80ft. The permitted FAR of that particular city is 2.

FAR = [total floor area ➗ area of plot]

2 = [ total floor area ➗ (50ft. х 80 ft.)]

Total floor area = [2  х (50ft. х 80 ft.)] 

      Total floor area  = 8000 sq ft.

3. A plot owner wants to construct a building having 4 floors over the plot area of 4000 sq ft. The FAR of the locality is 2.5. What will be the covered area of the building, if all the floors are constructed having the same area? 

The total floor area that can be constructed 

   = [FAR  х plot area.]

 = [ 2.5 х 4000 sq ft.]

 = 10,000 sq ft.

The total area covered by the building 

= [total floor area ➗ no. of floors]

= [10,000 sq ft. х 4 nos.]

= 2500 sq ft.

To go through the articles on Estimation & calculation in civil engineering, click here.

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Concreting in water-logged foundation pit./How to do concreting work for a foundation in water?

 The foundation area gets filled by the water due to the following 2 reasons.

a. Due to rainwater: 

If the RL of the foundation site is lower, the water gets accumulated in the area from the surrounding catchment area. The rainwater is a temporary problem & they subside or drain out in the coming season.

b. Due to the water table:

If the level of the water table is above the foundation level, we have to deal with the situation by following certain methods, to maintain the quality of the foundation.

Now, let us understand the different methods or procedures to be followed while making the concreting work in the water-logged foundation area.

1. Working season:

If the construction work is not within the timeframe, the best way is to start the foundation work in the summer season. 

The water table sinks to the lower level in the summer season. This helps to save extra costs required in dewatering & labor.

2. Creating a sump:

Create a sump of 2' 🇽 2' size at the lowest level of the foundation area. The depth of the sump should be 2 to 4ft., depending upon the flow or percolation of water within the ground. 

The location of the sump should be selected in such a way that it does not fall within the positioned foundation pit area.

Pumping out the water at regular intervals helps to maintain the water table below the strata base & the foundation laying becomes less tedious.

 3. Partial work:

The digging of the pit should be done partially or in batches depending upon the concreting capability. The water table softens the soil & the excavated pit collapses due to rising water. 

Part by part working reduces the re-excavation of collapsed soil & saves in our budget.

4. Soil stabilization:

If the soil strata get loose or soft due to the water table, we should stabilize the strata for further work. A layer of lime & sand mixture works better in handling loose soils. Spread the dry mixture over the foundation base & compact them by using a rammer.

5. Laying boulders:

We should use boulders of a specified size to lay over the strata & to maintain the required SBC. The base level of the foundation PCC gets raised within the water, without compromising the load-bearing capacity of the soil.

The boulder should be rammed within the loose soil to embed densely into the soil bed. Any leftover voids should be filled by the murum (construction soil) or coarse aggregates. 

6. Dewatering:

Create a sump at the lower corner of the footing pit. Pump out the excess water continuously by using a water pump. While concreting, you should take care that the water level should not rise above the concrete level.

 Dewatering should be done until the concrete sets or hardens. Usually, 90 to 120 minutes of pumping is enough, as the concrete hardens within those time period. 

Keep a standby water pump in a ready position. If the running pump fails, handling the situation becomes difficult as we cannot leave the footing work incomplete in water-logged areas.

7. Concrete mix:

For the PCC bed work, we can use a stiff concrete mix. The concrete absorbs the water from the strata when we lay the foundation bed.

Add 10% extra cement to the concrete mix to maintain the safer designed strength. Any absorbed excess water weakens the concrete strength & adding extra cement helps to keep up the concrete grade.  

. 

Out of all these 7 methods, follow those procedures, whichever is applicable to your site conditions.

👀  To go through all types of construction-related procedures & checklists, click here.

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